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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Conflict in Schools: Its Causes
& Management Strategies<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Introduction:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Conflict presently
continues to be a factor in academic life. Schools frequently appear to be
centers of tension; on occasion, they are perhaps a manifestation of problems
in the community. The term conflict is viewed in a variety of ways because of
its confusion with those conditions which lead to situations of different
conflict. Thomas (1976) defines conflict as “the process which begins when one
party perceives that the other has frustrated, or is about to frustrate, some
concern of his”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Conflict involves
situations in which differences are expressed by interdependent people in the
process of achieving their needs and goals, and it arises when a difference
between two or more people necessitates change in at least one person in order
for their engagement to continue and develop.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Because of diverse and
varied definitions of conflict, attitudes towards it and images of its role are
also varied. Conflict in schools takes different forms; for example teachers
seem reluctant to obey the principals, they do not seem to follow rules or
accept extra work, they do not easily get along with their principals.
Principals too adopt an authoritative approach, for example they pressurize
teachers for an uninterrupted working of the school activities. It, therefore,
becomes common that conflict between teachers and the school principal occur
frequently at any time in the school. In institutions, conflict occurs between
various individuals because of their frequent interaction with each other.
Conflict is an expression of hostility, antagonism and misunderstanding between
the staff members. Conflict is inevitable and often good, for example, good
teams always go through a "form, storm, norm and perform" period.
Getting the most out of diversity means often-contradictory values,
perspectives and opinions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Conflict
is often needed. It:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">i).<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;">         </span>Helps to raise and address problems.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">ii).<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;">        </span>Energizes work to be on the most
appropriate issues.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">iii).<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;">       </span>Helps people "be real", for
example, it motivates them to participate.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">iv).<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;">       </span>Helps people learn how to recognize and
benefit from their differences.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Conflict
in Schools- Its Causes & Management Strategies<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Conflict is not the
same as discomfort. The conflict isn't the problem - it is when conflict is
poorly managed that is the problem.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Conflict
is a problem when it:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(1) Hampers
productivity <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(2) Lowers morale <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(3) Causes more and
continued conflicts <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(4) Causes
inappropriate behaviours<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Conflict
Management in School<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The better educators
and students understand the nature of conflict, the better able they are to manage
conflicts constructively. Moran (2001) sees conflict management as “a
philosophy and a set of skills that assist individuals and groups in better
understanding and dealing with conflict as it arises in all aspects of their
lives”. Conflicts as a concept never remain positive or negative but it has
always been seen as a basic and result oriented part of school life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Conflicts offer
competitive as well as cooperative context in the organization but it varies
according to the situation. Problems exist in managing conflicts when the context
is competitive/individualistic or when the context and the conflict resolution
procedures are incongruent. The effectiveness of a conflict resolution and peer
mediation program may be limited when the classroom and school context is
competitive.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sources
of Conflict<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The possible sources of
conflict are poor communication, competition for common but scarce resources,
incompatible goals and the like14. Fisher (1997) notes, “…both individuals and
groups have undeniable needs for identity, dignity, security, equity,
participation in decisions that affect them. Frustration of these basic
needs….becomes a source of social conflict” 15<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">According to Plunkett
and Attner (1989), the sources of conflict include; shared resources,
differences in goals, difference in perceptions and values, disagreements in
the role requirements, nature of work activities, individual approaches, and
the stage of organizational development16. Gray and Stark (1984) suggested that
there are six sources of conflict.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">These
are: <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">1)
Limited resources; <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">2)
Interdependent work activities; <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">3)
Differentiation of activities; <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">4)
Communication problems;<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">5)
Differences in perceptions; <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">6)
The environment of the organization.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to these writers, conflict can also
arise from a number of other sources, such as:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1) Individual differences (some people enjoy
conflict while others don't); <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">2) Unclear authority
structures (people don't know how far their authority extends); <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">3) Differences in
attitudes; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">4) Task symmetries (one
group is more powerful than another and the weaker group tries to change the
situation; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">5) Difference in time horizons
(some departments have a long-run view and others have a short -run view).
Another author Deutch in camp bell et-al (1983:187) identified a list of
sources of conflict. These are; control over resources, preferences and
nuisances, values, beliefs, and the nature of relationships between the
parties.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The classification of
conflict is often made on the basis of the antecedent conditions that lead to
conflict. Conflict may originate from a number of sources, such as tasks,
values, goals, and so on. It has been found appropriate to classify conflict on
the basis of these sources for proper understanding of its nature and
implications. Following is a brief description of this classification.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Causes/ Factors leading to conflict<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Affective
Conflict<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">This is defined as “a
condition in which group members have interpersonal clashes characterized by
anger, frustration, and other negative feelings”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Substantive
Conflict</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Jehn (1997b)
characterized this type of conflict as “disagreements among group members’
ideas and opinions about the task being performed, such as disagreement
regarding an organization’s current strategic position or determining the
correct data to include in a report”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Conflict
of Interest<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">This is defined as an
inconsistency between two parties in their preferences for the allocation of a
scarce resource. This type of conflict occurs “when each party, sharing the
same understanding of the situation, prefers a different and somewhat
incompatible solution to a problem involving either a distribution of scarce
resources between them or a decision to share the work of solving it”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Conflict
of Values<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">This occurs when two
social entities differ in their values or ideologies on certain issues. This is
also called ideological conflict.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Goal
Conflict<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">This occurs when a
preferred outcome or an end-state of two social entities is inconsistent. In
rare cases “it may involve divergent preferences over all of the decision
outcomes, constituting a zero-sum game”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Realistic
versus Non-realistic Conflict<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Realistic conflict is
associated with “mostly rational or goal-oriented” disagreement, non-realistic
conflict “is an end in itself having little to do with group or organizational
goals”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Institutionalized
versus Non-institutionalized Conflict<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The former is
characterized by situations in which actors follow explicit rules, and display
predictable behaviour, and their relationship has continuity, as in the case of
line–staff conflict or labour–management negotiations. Most racial conflict is
non-institutionalized where these three conditions are nonexistent.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Retributive
Conflict<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">This conflict is
characterized by a situation where the conflicting entities or factions feel
the need for a drawn-out conflict to punish the opponent. In other words, each
party determines its gains, in part, by incurring costs to the other party.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Misattributed
Conflict<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">This relates to the
incorrect assignment of causes (behaviours, parties, or issues) to conflict.
For example, an employee may wrongly attribute to his or her supervisor a cut
in the employee’s department budget, which may have been done by higher-level
managers over the protest of the supervisor. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Displaced
Conflict<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">This type of conflict
occurs when the conflicting parties either direct their frustrations or
hostilities to social entities that are not involved in conflict or argue over
secondary, not major, issues.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Conflict
Resolution Skills/ Strategies<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">David W. Johnson and
Roger T. Johnson (1996) hold that Conflict resolution and peer mediation
programs are often promoted as a way to reduce violence (and destructively
managed conflicts) in schools28. Management of conflict is a human relations
concept long recognized in business and industry as a necessary component of
the developmental process. Sweeney and Caruthers (1996) define conflict
resolution in a most general and concise way, “the process used by parties in
conflict to reach a settlement”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Hocker and Wilmot
(1985) initially discuss conflict management styles in terms of assumptions. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Their
assumptions are</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">•<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;">           </span>People develop patterned response to
conflict.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">•<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;">           </span>People develop conflict styles for reasons
that make sense to them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">•<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;">           </span>No one style is automatically better
than another.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">•<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;">           </span>People's styles undergo change in
order to adapt to the demands of new situations31.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Robbins
(1974) concentrates on strategies specifically labelled as resolution
techniques. <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">He lists eight
techniques as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(1)
Problem solving <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(2)
Super ordinate goals <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(3)
Avoidance <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(4)
Smoothing <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(5)
Compromise<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(6) Authoritative command <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(7)
Altering the human variable <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(8)
Altering structural variables.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Thomas (1971) examines
conflict management strategies by focusing on general strategies used by
administrators in an educational setting. In his research he points out that
there is no difference between management and leadership; hence, manager is
synonymous with leader. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Thomas
eight strategies for management are:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(1)
Citizens advisories <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(2)
Confrontation sessions <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(3)
Sensitivity training<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(4)
Process involvement <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(5)
Educational pluralism <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(6)
Volunteerism <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(7)
Cooperative studies <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(8)
Failure.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Since conflict is
seemingly unavoidable, particularly in a scholarly setting, it is obviously
necessary for administrators to be able to recognize conflict, to view its
constructive as well as destructive potential, to learn how to manage conflict,
and to apply conflict management strategies in a practical way.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Jhonson
& Jhonson (1996) state that conflicts are resolved constructively when they
<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(a) Result in an
outcome that all disputants are satisfied with, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(b) Improve the
relationship between the disputants, and<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(c) Improve the ability
of disputants to resolve future conflicts in a constructive manner. Conflict
Resolution Education (CRE) and Ohio Department of Education (ODE) define conflict
resolution as a philosophy and set of skills that assist individuals and groups
to better understand and deal with conflict as it arises in all aspects of
their lives. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bodin and Crawford
(1999) maintains that since school is an entity which composes of different
people with different generational ages and that negotiation and mediation must
be identified as the best strategies for eliminating conflicts. Three types of
situations demand from the negotiator to face and find solution to them; these
situations are task and relationship oriented conflict, intellectual and
emotion oriented conflict and compromise and win conflict. Conflict management
is deemed to be successful if it has achieved its goal by reaching a win-win,
or approach-approach or consensual agreement which is accepted by both parties.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Mediation is another
way of conflict management used today. Bentley (1996) describes mediation as a
form of problem solving process where a neutral third party assists disputants
to reach a mutually acceptable agreement. Mediation proves as an effective method
because it involves a democratic and structured process that enables disputants
to resolve their own conflict, with the assistance of trained peers. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Deutsch
(2005) argues that mediators follow these steps:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">      </span></span></span></b><span dir="LTR"></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">They
establish a working alliance with the parties,<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">     </span></span></span></b><span dir="LTR"></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">They
improve the climate between the parties,<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">c)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">      </span></span></span></b><span dir="LTR"></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">They
address the issues, and that (d) they apply pressure for settlement. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Mediators
should adopt the following skills in order to handle conflict, namely;<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">a.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;">         </span>They must be able to establish a
working relation with each of the conflicting parties,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">b.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;">         </span>They must be able to establish a
cooperative problem- solving attitude among the parties,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">c.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;">         </span>They must be able to develop a creative
group process and group decision making, and<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">d.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;">         </span>They must gather considerable
substantive knowledge about the problems around which the conflict centers.</span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Conclusion:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Conflict management
styles are essential in order to utilize them for handling conflicts in the
schools. Prominent conflict handling styles include; competing, avoiding,
collaborating, compromising and accommodating. Competing style characterizes
assertiveness and uncooperativeness and it occurs when the parties involved
work for their respective gains at the expense of opposite party. This style is
described as power-focused style and might is right approach can best summarize
this approach. Second style is avoiding which is both unassertive and
uncooperative; in this the person involved work neither for his own benefit nor
bothers about the other party. This is sometimes considered as best because it
works on the principle of leave one alone. Collaborating approach is opposite
of avoiding and is characterized by both assertiveness and cooperativeness.
This style focuses on satisfying the needs of both parties involved. In this
both parties agree on working together. A collaborative approach to conflict
management, we argue, may enhance levels of trust and cooperation between the
president and the board. Collaboration may be an especially useful strategy for
resolving and/or regulating conflicts and loosening the grip of dissension
where confrontation involves stakeholders with differential power and
resource42. Compromising style is a mid way approach for conflict management,
it adopts an intermediate course between assertiveness and cooperativeness and
it is effective when both parties agree on sacrificing some concerns for
achieving a solution. Finally, accommodating style is characterized by both
unassertiveness and cooperativeness and it is the opposite of competing style.
In this style an individual gives up some of his concerns so as to accommodate
the needs of his adversary.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">There is still,
however, a long way to go before conflict resolution and peer mediation training
is managed constructively in every classroom and school43. However, it may be
underscored that conflict-free atmosphere is conducive to constructive and
creative work. Sincere efforts should be made to resolve tensions & cultivate
an atmosphere of mutual acceptance and tolerance, accommodation &
understanding. Uncalled for tensions & conflicts so often lead to mental
stresses & strains that, in turn, cause psycho-somatic diseases &
deformities.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">References<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -7.1pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">                 
</span></span></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Karen L.
Fleetwood, (1987), The Conflict Management Styles And Strategies Of Educational
Managers, A thesis submitted to the Faculty of the University of Delaware in
partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in
Communication<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -7.1pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">                 
</span></span></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">E. M. Beck and Michael
Betz (1975), A Comparative Analysis of Organizational Conflict in Schools
Sociology of Education, Vol. 48, No. 1, American Sociological Association, p
60.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -7.1pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">                 
</span></span></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Thomas, K.W.
(1976). Conflict and Conflict management. In M.D. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of
industrial and organizational psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally, pp. 889-935.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -7.1pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">                 
</span></span></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Denohue, W. A. and B. Kott. (1992), Managing
Interpersonal Conflict. Newbury, Park Calif.: Sage Publication.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -7.1pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">                 
</span></span></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gebretensay
Tesfay (2002), A Study of factors that generate conflict between government
secondary school teachers and educational managers in Addis Ababa
Administrative Region, A Thesis presented to The School of Graduate Studies
Addis Ababa University, p.3<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -7.1pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">                 
</span></span></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Chandan, Jet.
(1994). Organizational Behaviour, New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House pvt. Ltd.
P.271<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -7.1pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">                 
</span></span></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Carter McNamara,
Basics of Conflict Management, Adapted from the Field Guide to Leadership and
Supervision. Retrieved from http://managementhelp.org/intrpsnl/basics.htm,
dated: 15-3-2010<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -7.1pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">                 
</span></span></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">David W. Johnson
and Roger T. Johnson (1996), Review of Educational Research, Vol. 66, No. 4,
American Educational Research Association, pp. 459- 506<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -7.1pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">                 
</span></span></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tschannen-Moran,
M. (2001). The effects of a state-wide conflict management initiative in
schools. American Secondary Education, 29, p.3.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -7.1pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">10.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">             
</span></span></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kinard, J.
(1988). Management, Toronto: D.C. Health and company. P. 303<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -7.1pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">11.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">             
</span></span></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Jhonson &
Jhonson, Ibid, p.498<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -7.1pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">12.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">             
</span></span></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Hanson, E.M.
(1991). Educational Administration and Organizational Behavior (3rd Ed),
Boston: Allynard Bacon. p.271<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -7.1pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">13.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">             
</span></span></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Fisher, R.J.
(1997). Interactive conflict resolution. Syracuse University Press: Syracuse,
New York. P.6<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -7.1pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">14.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">             
</span></span></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Plunkett,
W.R.and Raymond, F. Attner (1989). Introduction to Management, Boston: PWs-Kent
Publishing, p.437<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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